The states of Europe and Asia in the Modern period
Europe
1. The 1430-s – Johannes Guttenberg invented printing (the Guttenberg Bible – the first book).
2. Scientific Revolution: In the mid-16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus proved Heliocentricity. The concept was later developed by Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, Leonardo da Vinci.
In the early 17th century, Francis Bacon and René Descartes argued the formal logics and experiment.
Isaak Newton (1642–1727) discovered gravity and mechanics of movement.
3. Reformation vs Counter-Reformation. Decline of the Catholic Church à growth of protests in the early 16th century in Germany à appearance of Protestantism (1517 – Martin Luther’s propaganda of Lutheranism). The peasant war in Germany. The spreading of Calvinism in Switzerland (Jean Calvin’s Geneva community), France (Huguenots and the 16th century religious wars), Netherlands (the Reformed Church), England (Puritans), Scotland (Presbyterians).
The mid-16th century Counter-Reformation – the Catholic church’ response to Protestantism à increase of Inquisition, creation of the Order of Jesus (Jesuits).
4. Renaissance. Italy – the first centre. The intellectuals of Renaissance (Erasmus of Rotterdam, Michelangelo, da Vinci, Cervantes, Shakespeare, etc.).
5. Conquering the New World. 1519-21 – Hernan Cortes conquered the Aztecs in Mexico, the 1530s – Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incas in Andes à the Spanish colonies in America established à slavery, cultivation of sugar cane and exploitation of golden and silver mines; first racial hierarchy (Creoles, Mestizos, Mulattoes, Sambo); the Columbian Exchange of plants, animals and diseases; import of slaves from Africa.
6. The northern wave of colonization. Spain and Portugal contested by England, France and Holland. Joint-stock companies – northern European invention and the best tool of colonialist expansion. Privateering (private law and public law = letters of reprisals/ letters of marque) and piracy.
7. The 16th century Muscovy’s penetration in Siberia. The reforms of Peter I (1682–1725) in the Moscow state à westernization.
8. The 17th century large European conflicts – the Thirty years war (1618–1648) and the National Liberation War of the Cossacks led by Bohdan Khmelnytskyi in Ukraine against the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1657) (Hetmanate created).
Asia
1. The Ottoman Empire from the 15th to the 18th centuries. Defshirme – the human tax à Janissaries – the slave solders as the main force of the Empire. Sultans Mehmed II and Suleiman I the Magnificent – creators of the absolutist monarchy. The Vizier (prime minister) as the chief figure in the Empire. Decline of the Ottomans due to their religious conservatism.
2. Indostan. The Mughal Empire (1526–1857). Babur (1483–1530) – the founder. The Sikhism movement (the first leader Nanak (1496–1539)). Akbar (1556–1605) – the religious toleration and the Holy Faith. Aurangzeb (1658–1707) – Islamist repressions, no toleration à destabilization and decline of the Mughal Empire à penetration of the British East India Company.
3. China. The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) – the second foreign dynasty. The Manchu pastoralists (people from Manchuria) as the creators of the dynasty. The discrimination of the Chinese (marriages, travels, administrative jobs, the hairstyle of queue).
4. Japan. The Tokugawa Shogunate (1600–1868). Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616) founded the state in 1600. Repressions against Christianity and self-isolationism.